By Victoria Scannella, Library Assistant

Mischief night, known to those of us from New Jersey or the general Northeastern region of the United States, is known as the night before Halloween. Often, this night consists of pranks ranging from silly and harmless to cruel and mean. Growing up, we were often discouraged from going out on Mischief Night, bringing our pumpkins inside, and being wary of people knocking on the door. Some pranks could include toilet papering someone’s home, smashing their jack o’ lanterns, or egging a house. It is documented that:

In the U.S., Halloween Eve goes by many names, with variation even in the areas that do call it something special. “Mischief Night” has a strong presence in the New Jersey area and the coastal Northeast. In Detroit, Oct. 30 is known as Devil’s Night. Parts of New England call it Cabbage Night. Elsewhere it’s devil’s eve, gate night or goosey night. (1)

In its original connotation, dating back to Oxford in the 1790s, it was not describing the night before Halloween. In some 19th-century resources, such as books and other similar materials, “Mischief Night” was a term for the night before May Day or Guy Fawkes day, where pranks were pulled by younger people around town. These, much like the modern Mischief Night pranks, ranged from nuisances to more destructive. (1) Because Mischief Night was considered to be a specific day, it was the perfect excuse to cause a bit of chaos! 

Like Halloween, a holiday that has roots in Celtic Pagan traditions thousands of years ago, Mischief Night also has similar historical roots. The advent of Halloween, known in Celtic and Irish traditions as Samhain or All Hallows Eve, was also known as the day that the veil between worlds would lift and allow ghosts and the like to come back and re-enter our world for the duration the lines of the veil were blurred. (2) In The SUNDAY Trentonian, Mischief Night was described as the night “… the spirits of the dead would rise on All Souls’ Day and for one terrifying night, ghosts and goblins would be free to roam the earth.” (3) This was probably another excuse to cause chaos and have a little bit of fun, blaming it on ghosts. Since this was a genuine belief that they held, it also may have aided in their pranking as part of letting the ghosts enjoy some mortal mayhem. 

It was in the 1930s and 1940s that Mischief Night actually became known as the night before Halloween, where pranks would be pulled and general mayhem caused. (1) With all of the turmoil that was present in the world during those two decades and even after, it makes sense why some would want to lash out or let off steam, whether that be from a stint of harmless pranks or total destruction. The pranking of people the night before Halloween possibly came about as a way to release the pent-up frustration as a result of the Great Depression and the introduction of a more lighthearted tradition to distract from the likelihood of the impending war. Some took it upon themselves to take more extreme measures, such as lighting fires, breaking windows, and other very destructive pranks. Others, on the other hand, performed more innocent pranks, like leaving leaves on people’s lawns and ding-dong ditching. (1) Some of these pranks also might have been linked to racism, specifically in the 50s and 60s during a time of unrest and unease across the United States. (2) There is no clear indication of what these particular instances looked like, or what kind of pranks (violent or otherwise) were being done. The SUNDAY Trentonian described Mischief Night as, “… the night when boisterous youths would emulate the legendary imps by running around trying to scare people, cause small disturbances and just generally be as mischievous as Tom Sawyer in his best form.” (3) This description of Mischief Night, or “Tick Tack Night” as the article also refers to it as, became known for vandalism more than harmless, Tom Sawyer-esq pranks.

Things really ramped up in the 1970s and 1980s with more violent and destructive occurrences like arson and destruction of private property. Specifically in Detroit, over 800 fires were set the three days prior to Halloween, and in 1986, a curfew was instilled for those under 18. In the 1990s, this brought about the introduction of the term “Angel’s Night” to counteract “Devil’s Night”, the name by which Mischief Night is known in Michigan. As time progressed, there were more volunteer groups who were intent on stopping any of the activities of Mischief Night, as well as a heavier police force to dissuade would-be pranksters and arsonists. 

Here, in Cumberland County, the oldest published article discussing “Mischief Night” was from October 31, 1936. The article announces that: 

At last Hallowe’en has arrived Last evening was the prelude to the merry masquerade commonly dubbed ‘Mischief Night.’ Local mummers are missing the good old times of some years ago when it was an annual custom to parade the streets, throwing confetti in every direction and acting as unconventional as possible. (4) 

Although there are no thorough descriptions of what sort of behavior was on display at this parade, clearly there was no discouragement from participating in the Mischief Night shenanigans. 

The next article discussing Mischief Night was published years later on October 28, 1941 by the Bridgeton Evening News. For the time being, it shall remain a Halloween mystery. The article from 1941 takes on a more wary tone, reporting that the Commissioner of Public Safety, Mervin Beach, announced that there would be a higher police presence to discourage the destruction of property that Mischief Night became associated with. The article read that “Hallowe’en pranks are all right with the commissioner, but he said that he will prosecute to the limit persons who destroy property or menace the safety of the public under the pretext of having fun.” (5) Much of the pranks being pulled on Mischief Night seemed to be good fun, but there were a few that took it too far. As the years went on, there were more instances of destruction and mischief that needed police involvement. 

According to the Bridgeton Evening News, instances of vandalism on Mischief Night in 1945 were at an all time high. For example, “Police received calls from North Lauren and North streets and Penn and North Laurel streets, were obstructions were so placed that they could be pushed or pulled into the path of approaching cars.” (5) This is around the time that destruction and vandalism really started to take hold in the places that celebrated Mischief or Devil’s Night, and became synonymous with the celebration. As seen in an article from Refinery29, “Small acts of vandalism in the early 20th century would become troubling instances of public harassment, often infused with racism, in the 1950s and ’60s. And, most notably, the Mischief Nights of the 1980s were plagued by a rash of arsons in Detroit.” (6) It was due to the events in Detroit and other similar occurrences across the east coast during the 20th century that gave Mischief Night a bad name.

In my hometown, we never really celebrated Mischief Night. It was discouraged by the mayor and our teachers, and I never knew anyone who actually participated, harmless pranks or otherwise. I do recall being cautioned to bring our jack-o-lantern’s inside the house to avoid them getting smashed. As technology progressed, specifically with Ring cameras on many front doors and a demonstrated heightened police presence, the celebration of Mischief Night was left behind with the older generations. The idea of the celebration itself has become somewhat of an urban legend in and of itself as time has progressed and it is no longer something celebrated. 

1. https://time.com/4093505/mischief-night-history/

2. https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2017/10/178824/what-is-mischief-night-before-halloween

3. https://www.genealogybank.com/doc/newspapers/image/v2%3A14445B534B5AB507%40GB3NEWS-188E23EF5A607A28%402444175-188D2618226A4E8B%402-188D2618226A4E8B%40?h=14&fname=&lname=&fullname=&kwinc=%22mischief%20night%22&kwexc=&rgfromDate=&rgtoDate=&formDate=&formDateFlex=exact&dateType=range&processingtime=&addedFrom=&addedTo=&sid=kuswgpkqfesmbozgyxoqppgoudjabvxd_ip-10-166-46-113_1728484153453

4. https://www.genealogybank.com/doc/newspapers/image/v2%3A124ABFFE25150BEB%40GB3NEWS-1867244D2F3848CB%402428473-1863BC41A097DF43%403-1863BC41A097DF43%40?h=1&fname=&lname=&fullname=&kwinc=%22mischief%20night%22&kwexc=&rgfromDate=&rgtoDate=&formDate=&formDateFlex=exact&dateType=range&processingtime=&addedFrom=&addedTo=&sort=old&sid=yglvhzvtgayavcdvctpfxhdtxiwekrcb_ip-10-166-46-187_1728748511427

5. https://www.genealogybank.com/doc/newspapers/image/v2%3A124ABFFE25150BEB%40GB3NEWS-18665D2B9FEDBE7B%402430297-1865E689695F8F2E%400-1865E689695F8F2E%40?h=2&fname=&lname=&fullname=&kwinc=%22mischief%20night%22&kwexc=&rgfromDate=&rgtoDate=&formDate=&formDateFlex=exact&dateType=range&processingtime=&addedFrom=&addedTo=&sort=old&sid=yglvhzvtgayavcdvctpfxhdtxiwekrcb_ip-10-166-46-187_1728748511427

6. https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2017/10/178824/what-is-mischief-night-before-halloween

By Victoria Scannella, Library Assistant

This series of blog posts recounting different urban legends, in the most true New Jersey fashion, includes the story of the infamous “Jersey Devil,” of the Pine Barrens. Although that’s typically where he is described as being seen, there are numerous accounts out of towns and cities all over South Jersey claiming to have seen the Devil themselves. According to the Pinelands Alliance, the Devil was officially designated as the first-ever “state demon,” in 1938. (1) New Jersey is the only state to have an “official” state demon. However, there are many cryptids that are notorious in certain states, specifically the legend of the Mothman in West Virginia. But for our great Garden State, we have the Jersey Devil!

The Pine Barrens, a  dense forested region of South Jersey which the Jersey Devil was claimed to have been born in, is famous for being “haunted.” Whether you believe in ghosts and urban legends or not, there is something that can be unsettling about the Pine Barrens. That’s just the nature of dense, sprawling forests. With numerous former settlements present in the Pines, it’s easy to imagine how stories like the one of the Jersey Devil come to be. As stated on Only in Your State, “Lenni Lenape Indians first inhabited the area around 1200 A.D. European settlements began springing up along the Mullica River by 1694. The iron industry brought jobs and wealth to the Pine Barrens, with New Jersey producing much of the iron used during the Revolutionary War and War of 1812.” (2) Other industries also thrived in the Southern New Jersey area, specifically glass making. Once the coal industry picked up in Western Pennsylvania, the abandonment of those industry-towns was rampant, leaving everything behind for those exploring the Pine Barrens to find to this day. (2) Glass making was prominent in areas with sandy soil, including places like Batsto, Glassboro and Millville. 

One version of the story about the creation of the Jersey Devil was that a woman named Mrs. Leeds, who has been described to live in places such as Estellville, an unspecified cabin in the Pine Barrens, and down near the Batsto area of New Jersey, was unexpectedly expecting a thirteenth child around 1735. The Leeds was and still is a real family that existed in early New Jersey settlements and  descendants are still in New Jersey to this day. (3) Frustrated, she was reported to have said “Let it be the devil,” or a similar exclamation. When the child was due to arrive, he was born as a baby devil and shot up through Mrs. Leeds’s chimney and into the night. Similarly, other interpretations have the child being born as a normal boy and changed into a devil before the eyes of his mother, siblings and the midwife who had helped during the birth. There are also more violent interpretations of the story, where the devil gets violent then shoots off into the night. The version I always heard was that he was born a devil and flew up the chimney specifically. Red skin, horns, and a forked tail and tongue was always the interpretation I understood.

 The Jersey Devil has many different descriptions of him as different people have sighted him. The Devil has been mostly described as having the legs of a goat, devil horns, large bat-like wings, red glowing eyes and was reddish brown in color. Other interpretations suggest he being a “kangaroo-like creature with the face of a horse, the head of a dog, bat-like wings, horns and a tail.” (1) Legends and stories about sightings of the Jersey Devil began spreading throughout South Jersey by those that braved the Pines themselves, then by hearsay. The stories told of wails and shrieks coming from deep within the pines,  with many attributing the sounds to the Jersey Devil. There was also the occurrence of farm animals being slaughtered that was often ascribed to the Jersey Devil.  (3)

One of the first official reports of the  Jersey Devil sighting was lodged by Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon, in Bordentown, New Jersey in 1812. Bonaparte “claimed he saw the Jersey Devil while hunting near his Bordentown estate. Sightings occurred and the legend grew, fueled by animal attacks, strange footprints, and reports filed by eye witnesses who supposedly encountered the beast.” (4) Following these types of occurrences, it was specifically in January of 1909 that the legend spread like wildfire, breaking free of the Pine Barrens, to the Devil now haunting other towns and cities, such as Camden and Philadelphia. He was also allegedly spotted throughout Cumberland and Salem Counties, in Bridgeton and Millville. Many of the reports seen in newspapers from the time often claim the sighting of tracks or footprints as the reason for their certainty that it was the Devil. The Bridgeton Evening News reported on January 21, 1909, “Salem is aroused over the appearance of the tracks of the “Jersey Devil” here. That it has shown up in this section is certain…. The tracks indicate that the feet are turned outward and the right foot is larger than the left.” (5) People were up in arms about the possibility that the Jersey Devil paid the people of Salem an evening visit. 

Other stories include those that claimed to have heard and/or seen the Jersey Devil. More reports in the Bridgeton Evening News, from January 25, 1909, state:

The engineer over at the Manchester shirt factory was busy about his engine when he was startled by a strange hissing sound, such as might be heard by the “Jersey Devil.”… That strange creature with eyes like fire, a tail like a snake, fur on its body and feathers on its head. He grew rigid with fright and then the glamour passed from his eyes and he started on a hunt for the escaping steam. (6)

Another similar story in the same paper  asserted that the reporter cut through an empty lot and claimed to see the Jersey Devil. The reporter “almost reached the end of the lot when he saw some strange creature in a dark corner nearby. He wasn’t scared, his hair just stood on end and cold chills flew up and down that little bone in his back, that was all.” (6) By this point, multiple stories and alleged sightings had been claimed and reported in newspapers across South Jersey. Hysteria and hearsay swept through and planted the stories and sightings in people’s minds, and the fear of the dark did the rest.

Although after that week in January of 1909 the reports and sightings slowed down, though they did not end. There were reports in Gibbstown, Gloucester, and other areas of South Jersey where more reports were made about Jersey Devil sightings in the decades that followed. In 1960, after a series of reports in the Mays Landing area, there were $100,000 and $250,000 rewards being offered to catch the Jersey Devil to stop his reign of terror. (4) There is no shortage of stories and sightings of the Jersey Devil, even in recent years. In 2015, an article published on BestofNewJersey.com, a website dedicated to reporting stories and information about the Garden State, interviewed Angus Gillespie, an American Studies professor from Rutgers University on the subject of the Jersey Devil. Gillespie, in addition to outlining the history of the Jersey Devil legend and its sightings, also stated that because of its notoriety in the state, it has taken on a much different persona. The article read that “The Jersey Devil has since become a familiar, and oddly friendly, face throughout New Jersey. While Gillespie is quick to point out that hunting the Jersey Devil is “harmless fun,” he also thinks the monster and its stories deserve more respect.” (7) Gillespie also stated that the use of the Jersey Devil as the mascot and name for the NHL team “The New Jersey Devils” has made the creature significantly less of a terror and more of a fun character. 

The team was not always the New Jersey Devils, however. According to the New Jersey Devils website, “The New Jersey Devils organization began in 1982, after relocating from the Kansas City Scouts to the Colorado Rockies, and finally from Colorado to New Jersey.” (8) There is next to no shortage of interest or engagement with stories and legends of the Jersey Devil, especially because it is something that New Jersey, specifically South Jersey, holds onto. There is no historical record of the existence of the Leeds house, likely having crumbled a long time ago. There are some cabins that claim to be the original Leeds home, but it’s unclear whether those claims are false or not. (7) There are many documentaries, movies and books that are dedicated to telling stories of the Jersey Devil, both trying to prove and disprove its existence. There are a myriad of animals and other night-dwelling creatures present in the Pine Barrens, but with its sprawling 1.1 million acres, it’s possible that the Jersey Devil is lurking in there, too. 

1. “The Jersey Devil and Folklore – Protecting the New Jersey Pinelands and Pine Barrens: Pinelands Preservation Alliance.” Pinelands Preservation Alliance – Protecting the New Jersey Pinelands and Pine Barrens, March 6, 2024. https://pinelandsalliance.org/learn-about-the-pinelands/pinelands-history-and-culture/the-jersey-devil-and-folklore/ 
2. “One of the Most Haunted Forests in North America Is Right Here in New Jersey,” Only In Your State: Discover Magic In Your Own Backyard, https://www.onlyinyourstate.com/nature/new-jersey/haunted-pine-barrens-nj.  
3. “The Jersey Devil,” (January 15, 2024,) https://weirdnj.com/stories/jersey-devil/.  
4. Kelly Roncace, “13 Times the Jersey Devil Has Been Spotted in the Garden State.” NJ.com, (October 31, 2016,) https://www.nj.com/entertainment/2016/10/13_places_the_jersey_devil_has_been_spotted_in_the.html
5. “Salem, City and County,” Bridgeton Evening News, (January 21, 1909,) https://www.genealogybank.com/doc/newspapers/image/v2%3A124ABFFE25150BEB%40GB3NEWS-12588F5D97F763AE%402418328-125887CCE395F745%402-125887CCE395F745%40?h=2&fname=&lname=&fullname=&kwinc=%22jersey%20devil%22&kwexc=&rgfromDate=&rgtoDate=&formDate=&formDateFlex=exact&dateType=range&city%5B0%5D=bridgeton&city%5B1%5D=vineland&processingtime=&addedFrom=&addedTo=&sort=old&sid=otobdfdcirqoujjbfvdedoyjzfnsngyj_ip-10-166-46-175_1725549397749
6. “More of the ‘Devil’ Stories”, The News of Cumberland County, (January 25, 1909,) https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-news-of-cumberland-county-more-of-th/154292624/
7. Dan Bergstein, “Haunted NJ: The Jersey Devil.” Best of NJ, (July 25, 2022,) https://bestofnj.com/features/holidays/halloween/haunted-nj-the-jersey-devil/
8. “New Jersey Devils Team History: New Jersey Devils.” New Jersey Devils Team History, https://www.nhl.com/devils/team/history/#:~:text=Ring%20of%20Honor-,Devils%20History,00%2C%20and%202002%2D03

Written and researched by Victoria Scannella, Library Assistant

One urban legend that I’ve heard a lot about, coming straight out of the Bridgeton/Greenwich area, is the legend of the circus elephant that is allegedly buried at Gum Tree Corner. Although it’s unclear what in particular got me wondering about the history of the urban legends in Cumberland County, it probably had a lot to do with the change of weather. As the weather cools down, stories that are often told around a campfire become that much more interesting. According to a Bridgeton Evening News article from 1980, “It’s one of those legends that’s probably been handed down through generations; great to tell wide-eyed children on rainy days, but just a little too fantastic to be totally believable.” (1) As is the case with many urban legends, there were numerous claims of different towns, cities and even states that claim to have an elephant buried somewhere. It’s incredibly interesting how these stories spread and change over time as details are added, altered, or forgotten, but the main story remains the same.

One urban legend from the area is of an elephant that was buried at Gum Tree Corner. An article from The Bridgeton Evening News published in 1977 reads, “Did anyone ever hear the story of a circus elephant who died during a Bridgeton appearance and was buried at Gum Tree Corner… And that’s why the tree is so large?” (2) An article from The News of Cumberland County from 2010 states, “Everyone has heard that story. Supposedly, a circus came to town and an elephant died and was buried there. That is why the gum tree is so big.” (3) Though, gum trees are generally easy to grow and not incredibly temperamental, so the likelihood of the growth coming from the deceased circus elephant seems far-fetched. The tree, a sweet gum liquidambar styraciflua, has variable growth potential. Mature gum trees can reach heights of 60 to 75 feet and a width of 40 to 75 feet. It’s also a hardier tree, accepting and tolerant of several different types of soil. (4) This legend, unlike some others, is somewhat plausible as far as legends in New Jersey go.
There are different sources that say it was part of the P.T. Barnum circuses, or another unnamed circus group. The legend states that there was a circus troupe who paraded through Stow Creek with a caravan and animals. Though it has never been stated explicitly how the circus elephant passed away during their time in Stow Creek. No one was quite sure what to do, after all, what would you do with the body of a deceased elephant? Evidently, the logical response was to bury it “at the main crossroads of the township.” (1) The troupe and township buried the animal and planted a gum tree over top to act as a grave marker so it would not be forgotten.

The tree grew quite tall and wide, and was standing until just a few years ago. It was likely over 100 years old, before it fell during a storm. It was a landmark to anyone in the county, often used to explain directions, as it was at the center of the town. There is, of course, opposition to the legend in the form of a plausible explanation. Kenneth Wishnick, assistant director of the Cumberland County PLanning Board at the time this Bridgeton Evening News article was published, stated, “Since road names or route number signs had not been in existence, landmarks such as the gum tree have been extremely important in giving local directions.” (1) Another plausible explanation as to why the tree became so famous, being utilized for decades as a directional landmark.

Another iteration of the legend suggests that the elephant escaped from its captivity with the troupe and died elsewhere, with the end remaining the same. Some locals suggest that that’s why the tree grew to be so large, because of the decaying matter beneath it. The likelihood of a circus elephant being buried at Gum Tree Corner is pretty slim, but it certainly makes for an interesting story to tell those who grew up in the area.

In keeping with local legends about elephant burials, there is a legend from Elk Township in Gloucester County, NJ, that also boasts a story of a missing circus elephant. There is a trail that people can walk or ride their bikes along called the “Elephant Swamp Bicycle Trail,” where many go to scout wildlife and enjoy the quieter parts of the Garden State. The path was carved out during the days of the Pennsylvania-Reading Railroad, which had a line that went through South Jersey, from Glassboro to Bridgeton, in the 1870s. The story, much like the Gum Tree Corner story, had the circus traveling through the area using the railroad when an elephant escaped custody. It ran away and allegedly into the nearby swamp, never to be seen again. Thus, the area became known as Elephant Swamp. (5) It remains unclear what the fascination is with runaway circus elephants and local landmarks being named for them, but it was apparently a common occurrence. Urban legends and myths, stories that often stem from boredom or taking creative liberties from true tales, are an interesting aspect of society and culture that can be found all over the world. These stories often bring people together and make mysteries out of stories as another way to connect with the past.

1. Eileen Bennett, “Gum Tree Corner Marked by Legend,” Bridgeton Evening News, (November 8, 1980.) https://www.genealogybank.com/doc/newspapers/image/v2%3A124ABFFE25150BEB%40GB3NEWS-186CB272383F04DA%402444552-186CACF2617CAED2%400?fname=Eileen&lname=Bennett&fullname=&rgfromDate=&rgtoDate=&formDate=&formDateFlex=exact&dateType=range&kwinc=Gum%20Tree%20Corner&kwexc=&sid=nreemelkztdufljzibknqzmejdeticit_ip-10-166-46-162_1725890529727


2. “The Scribbler,” Bridgeton Evening News, (December 16, 1977.)
https://www.genealogybank.com/doc/newspapers/image/v2%3A124ABFFE25150BEB%40GB3NEWS-186BABE258076170%402443494-1867C8381D7D59B9%406-1867C8381D7D59B9%40?h=7&fname=&lname=&fullname=&kwinc=%22gum%20tree%20corner%22%20elephant&kwexc=&rgfromDate=&rgtoDate=&formDate=&formDateFlex=exact&dateType=range&processingtime=&addedFrom=&addedTo=&sid=jiamotpbeihzkzhigjpprthlozxlkuvr_ip-10-166-46-88_1723734180879
3. The News of Cumberland County, (August 21, 2010.) https://www.genealogybank.com/doc/newspapers/image/v2%3A18590AFD8794D831%40GB3NEWS-187C17F8B710426D%402455430-187A39E011A3E9BA%405-187A39E011A3E9BA%40?h=2&fname=&lname=&fullname=&kwinc=%22gum%20tree%20corner%22%20elephant&kwexc=&rgfromDate=&rgtoDate=&formDate=&formDateFlex=exact&dateType=range&processingtime=&addedFrom=&addedTo=&sid=jiamotpbeihzkzhigjpprthlozxlkuvr_ip-10-166-46-88_1723734180879

4. “Sweet-Gum,” The Morton Arboretum, (April 26, 2022.) https://mortonarb.org/plant-and-protect/trees-and-plants/sweet-gum/

5. “The Enchanting Elephant Swamp in Elk Township,” South Jersey History & Adventures, (April 27, 2014) https://southjerseyadventures.wordpress.com/2014/04/27/elephant-swamp-in-elk-township/

By Victoria Scannella, Library Assistant 

The Trans-Atlantic Slave trade began around 1526 and was active until 1867. However, it was between 1720 to 1780 that most of the enslaved people were brought to British North America from West Africa. (1) In an effort to free those who had been forcibly brought to the United States, many people worked together to organize a system to help enslaved escape bondage.  Prior to the “official” implementation of the Underground railroad, however, enslaved people who were trying to escape bondage, later known as “freedom seekers”, were sometimes able to escape bondage and live out their days as a free person. There were numerous underground railroads across the country that connected to places of safe haven for those who were able to escape.

The name of the “Underground Railroad” was metaphorical, as there was no actual railroad, nor did it run underground. It was named as such due to the undercover and hidden nature necessary to escape. “Railroad” came from the organized system of routes that were used to guide people to safe haven. Most of the escaped enslaved who were able to break out of bondage from the South and the West were generally moving toward the North or Canada. Not everyone in the North was an abolitionist. However, the presence of the Underground Railroad did help to inspire some sympathy from non-abolitionists. (2) There were many routes that ran through the state of New Jersey, ranging from as far south as Cape May to North Jersey. In New Jersey, “Though subsequent social and legal changes allowed greater freedom for persons of color in Jersey than in the adjacent states of Delaware and Maryland, it remained a slave territory in conscience and practice until at least the nineteenth century.” (3)

There were many famous Underground Railroad conductors including Harriet Tubman, William Still, Frederick Douglass, and Sojourner Truth. Tubman helped the railroad operate for 8 years, and helped around 50 formerly enslaved people escape to Philadelphia from Maryland and Delaware. She worked in Cape May waiting tables, cleaning rooms, and as a hotel cook. This was all in order to pay for her trips South, and when the Civil War broke out, Tubman also worked as a nurse for the Union. (3) One Delaware Quaker named Thomas Garret was also crucial in the North as a station master. He assisted, funded, and aided people escaping enslavement as they moved through the Underground Railroad. Garret was a supporter of William Still, brother of Dr. James Still and Peter Still, as well as the Secretary of the Philadelphia Vigilence Committee. William Still aided in finding safehouses, organized routes, and raised funds for self-emancipated people who had reached their final destination in the north. 

There were numerous branches of the Railroad in New Jersey, including the Greenwich Line, which began in Springtown and continued all the way to Jersey City, with stops in Mount Holly and Burlington, New Jersey. This route had a lot of stops that were surrounded by Quaker farms, swamps, or woods, where free African Americans made communities. Another line ran out of Cape May, through Snow Hill (present day Lawnside), Haddonfield and Camden. These resulted in small, tight knit communities around the state that were known as safe havens for the escapees. (3) 

Roughly 10 years prior to the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793, a teenager named Isaac Hopper had begun systematically freeing enslaved people and moving them further North, with the help of Quaker communities in Philadelphia. George Washington, in a letter written in 1786, wrote that “where there are numbers who would rather facilitate the escape of slaves than apprehend them when runaways.” (3) The Underground Railroad became an official “route” following the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. Although there had already been a legislature in 1793 under the same title, it was after the second iteration that the Railroad became a more organized and intentional way to help the enslaved escape from bondage. Some sought refuge in the North, especially after the breakout of the Civil War, while others escaped the United States entirely, choosing instead to go to Europe, Canada, and Mexico. (4) In Parallel Communities by Dennis Rizzo, he posited, “Under the revised statutes of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, in which any person of color was presumed a slave unless he or she could prove otherwise, kidnapping became rampant and profitable. Once “sold South,” it was near impossible for a person to find his or her way home to friends and family.” (3) This occurred within the Still family, as William’s older brother Peter was kidnapped prior to William’s birth and was sold South. It wasn’t until 40 years later that Peter made it back to Philadelphia and became involved in the Underground Railroad (3).

The Underground Railroad was one of the most influential and powerful aids in helping the formerly enslaved peoples escape and find their freedom in numerous communities around the Northern United States, sometimes able to reunite with their friends and family, or otherwise finding their “found” family.  It took the work of many people to organize and operate the Underground Railroad, and why it was such a success in aiding many escapees from enslavement. To highlight these accomplishments and celebrate Black History Month, we wanted to discuss the massive presence of the railroad in the Cumberland County area of New Jersey, as well as the communities present today as a result. Happy Black History Month!

1. Mintz, Steven. “Historical Context: Facts about the Slave Trade and Slavery.” Historical Context: Facts about the Slave Trade and Slavery | Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/teacher-resources/historical-context-facts-about-slave-trade-and-slavery. 
2. “Underground Railroad.” Encyclopædia Britannica, February 16, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Underground-Railroad. 
3. Rizzo, Dennis C, Parallel Communities: The Underground Railroad in South Jersey. Charleston, SC: History Press, 2008. 
4. “The National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom (U.S. National Park Service).” National Parks Service. https://www.nps.gov/places/crnurr.htm. 
5. “The Underground Railroad.” Education, https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/underground-railroad/. 

By Victoria Scannella, Library Assistant

In Vineland during the 1950s, there were a lot of fun activities going on for people of all ages to enjoy, including NASCAR and a drive-in movie theatre! Ordinarily when you think of car-racing tournaments, or the first drive-in theater in New Jersey, how often do you think of Vineland? The Vineland Speedway had a car-racing track that opened in the mid- 1950s and closed in the late 1960s. It hosted many local and national racing championships and events; these events included sports car racing, motorcycle events, and even drag races. (1) What about the idea of the drive-in? Did you know the first ever drive-in theatre, like the one seen in the movie Grease, opened in New Jersey?

Sports car racing began in the early 20th century in Europe with the first Grand Prix occurring in France in 1906. There are numerous types of racing that had been present in the early nineteenth century, including drag racing, stock car racing, which led to the founding of NASCAR (National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing). (1) The late 1950s and the early 1960s saw a country-wide rise in interest in sports-car racing due to the establishment of Grand Prix racing worldwide. (1) The growth in popularity also can be credited to the end of World War II, and the demand for leisure activities that had not been previously available. (1) It was hot-rod racing in particular that gained popularity following World War II, which led to the founding of the National Hot Rod Association that: 

Unlike most European and other countries, the United States [had] no single automobile racing body. The governing bodies noted above for various kinds of racing are members of the Automobile Competition Committee for the United States-FIA, basically an advisory and liaison organization. (1)

Specifically, in Cumberland County, the introduction of the Vineland Speedway in the Spring of 1955 led to 10 years of high excitement automobile racing for the county. (4) The end of the 1950s and the beginning of the 1960s show cultural themes across the nation of getting back to “normal” following the end of the war, but also experimenting with different forms of entertainment that had been present previously, but now could be revolutionized.

The Vineland Speedway was a dirt-road track that was only half of a mile and tickets were sold for less than a dollar each when it first opened. (5) The world of auto racing, as it was being reimagined, struck those in Cumberland County with excitement as drivers from all over came to race at the track. In 1958, the original dirt road track was paved with asphalt and brought new life to the racing scene. (5) There were several tracks present in the state around the same time, including the Morristown Raceway in North Jersey, which also hosted NASCAR races in the 1950s. (6) Quoted from the Trenton Evening Times, “An important link in the five-track Garden State circuit of NASCAR (National Association of For Stock Car Auto Racing), the half-mile Vineland smokepath will be the mecca for star performers who last year captured track, state, regional and National honors.” (7) This did become the case with famous racers racing at Vineland Speedway throughout its time. One famous racer named Tommy (Tommie) Elliott raced at Vineland Speedway several different times, and had raced at Vineland as early as April of 1959. (8) Elliott was described as “the blonde-haired flash,” in a newspaper article from the Trenton Evening Times, a racing champion who had been racing at several other New Jersey tracks before winning again at Vineland that week. (9) Another famous racer was Elton Hildreth, nicknamed “The Bridgeton Broadslider” was a Vineland Speedway champion, having won 12 features at the track in the season of 1960. (10) Also nicknamed “Wild Man”, his career began in the 1930s racing in open-cockpit cars. Hildreth was specifically known for racing in a black and orange 16-J Chevrolet coupe. Although he competed and won at numerous other races and was a champion, at Vineland Speedway, he won a whopping record of 33 races. (11) He was notorious for many things, and when kids were given the opportunity to ride with Hildreth in his famous 16-J, they lined up for a turn in the car. Hildreth had a long and successful career, retiring in 1973. (11).

Despite the seeming popularity of the track, it unfortunately closed in 1965 after a steady drop in attendance due to the lack of interest in local sports racing, in addition to some of the land being sold off to build the Cumberland County Community College. (2) 

Another famous (and historic!) spot in Cumberland County is the Delsea Drive-In, also in Vineland. Although it was not the first drive-in movie theatre in New Jersey, today it is the last one existing in the state. The first drive-in theatre in the United States was opened in Pennsauken, New Jersey, in June of 1933 by Richard Hollingshead Jr., “…admission cost was 25 cents per car and 25 cents per person.” (12) The site now houses the Zinman Furs building and a few billboards. I’ve passed this site going to Philadelphia for pretty much my entire life and never would have thought this space used to be a drive-in movie theater. 

Drive-ins, much like the Vineland Speedway, became post World War II pastimes as the culture of the nation shifted in the new post-war era. Many Cumberland County and New Jersey residents alike loved the Delsea Drive-In theatre from the days it was open to today. The Drive-In opened originally in April of 1949 by Milton Smith, playing the movie Drums as its inaugural movie. Unfortunately, after changing hands numerous times, the drive-in closed in 1987, assumed to be permanently closed. (13) It was in 2004 that the drive-in reopened after being purchased by Dr. John and Jude DeLeonardis, who renovated it into how it is seen today. The theater has two screens and a wide concessions menu, which is what the Deleonardis’s credit with keeping the drive-in afloat. Although Delsea is not the only drive-in left in the United States, there are not many left with “The closest drive-in to the Delsea [Drive-In is] Shankweiler’s in Orefield, Pennsylvania [which is] 100 miles away. It’s America’s oldest existing drive-in, dating to 1934.” (13) This, in a sense, helps Delsea as it is a unique destination for people from all over the state, and surrounding areas in Delaware and Philadelphia. 

I vividly remember when my friends and I were old enough to drive, one of the best summer activities was to drive out to the Delsea Drive-In, to see the blockbuster Marvel movies around 2018. If you want to feel nostalgic or wish to relive an aspect of the 1950s, attractions like these are great places to visit!

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Also! If you aren’t following our social media, The Cumberland County Historical Society has just begun a new podcast called, “NOT Well-behaved Women, American History from a Different Perspective with Britt, Tori and Tia” now available on Spotify!

1. “American, European, and International Racing.” Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/sports/automobile-racing/American-European-and-international-racing.  
2. Doug Fuhrmann, “Vineland Speedway Was Center of Auto Racing.” The Daily Journal, June 16, 2015. https://www.thedailyjournal.com/story/news/history/2015/06/16/vineland-speedway-was-center-of-auto-racing-in-cumberland-county/28805367/. 
3. “American, European, and International Racing.” Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/sports/automobile-racing/American-European-and-international-racing.
4. Don Whitney, “SCODA, a Concise History.” SCODA, A Concise History – International Motor Racing Research Center. Accessed January 31, 2024. https://www.racingarchives.org/blogpost/scoda-a-concise-history/.  
5. Doug Fuhrmann, “Vineland Speedway Was Center of Auto Racing.” The Daily Journal, June 16, 2015. https://www.thedailyjournal.com/story/news/history/2015/06/16/vineland-speedway-was-center-of-auto-racing-in-cumberland-county/28805367/. 
6. “NASCAR and Modified Racing Has Deep Roots in the Garden State: NASCAR Hall of Fame: Curators’ Corner.” Nascar Hall of Fame. Accessed January 31, 2024. https://www.nascarhall.com/blog/artifact-morristown-program. 
7. “Dual Feature At Vineland on April 7.” Trenton Evening Times , March 26, 1957. https://www.genealogybank.com/doc/newspapers/image/v2%3A1236872C1F6A0AE3%40GB3NEWS-1276D982621F35B6%402435924-1272EFA2797F7981%4022-1272EFA2797F7981%40?h=2&fname=&lname=&fullname=&kwinc=%22Vineland%20Speedway%22&kwexc=&rgfromDate=&rgtoDate=&formDate=&formDateFlex=exact&dateType=date&processingtime=&addedFrom=&addedTo=&sort=old&sid=axvvnuoondgsfawqpbklhuohtyftwlym_ip-10-166-46-159_1705508457799
8. “Stock Cars Start Racing This Friday.” Trenton Evening Times, April 21, 1959. https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-daily-journal-track-starter/26726689/
9. “Elliot Races Choice at Dix.” Trenton Evening Times, July 1, 1964. https://www.genealogybank.com/doc/newspapers/image/v2%3A1236872C1F6A0AE3%40GB3NEWS-1272A81A36705A4A%402438578-1272439F79C78EB1%4051-1272439F79C78EB1%40?h=7&fname=&lname=&fullname=&kwinc=%22Vineland%20Speedway%22&kwexc=&rgfromDate=&rgtoDate=&formDate=&formDateFlex=exact&dateType=date&processingtime=&addedFrom=&addedTo=&sort=new&sid=axvvnuoondgsfawqpbklhuohtyftwlym_ip-10-166-46-159_1705508457799
10. “Hildreth Seeks Win in 100-Mile Classic at Langhorne Sunday.” Trenton Evening Times, October 3, 1961. https://www.genealogybank.com/doc/newspapers/image/v2%3A1236872C1F6A0AE3%40GB3NEWS-126E01D8A6EE02AF%402437576-126BAA7AB4AFF9FE%4027-126BAA7AB4AFF9FE%40?h=25&fname=&lname=&fullname=&kwinc=%22Vineland%20Speedway%22&kwexc=&rgfromDate=&rgtoDate=&formDate=&formDateFlex=exact&dateType=date&processingtime=&addedFrom=&addedTo=&sort=new&page=1&sid=axvvnuoondgsfawqpbklhuohtyftwlym_ip-10-166-46-159_1705508457799
11. “Legendary Race Car Driver Elton Hildreth Dies at Age 95.” South Jersey Times NJ.COM, September 3, 2013. https://www.nj.com/cumberland/2013/09/legendary_race_driver_elton_hildreth_dies.html.  
12. “About Us.” Delsea Drive-in Movie Theatre, January 21, 2024. https://www.delseadrive-in.com/#. 

13. Jennifer Finn, “Behind New Jersey’s Last Drive-In Theater.” New Jersey Monthly, May 24, 2023. https://njmonthly.com/articles/arts-entertainment/delsea-drive-in-theatre/. 

By Victoria Scannella

In the time of Prohibition, lasting in New Jersey from 1922 to 1933, parts of South Jersey were most famously known as “Rum Row”, the most famous for being the largest of the “Rum Rows” along the East Coast.

 Although cities such as New York, Chicago, and Atlantic City were all notorious for their bootlegging, the convenience of farmland and rural area that is Cumberland County made for its fair share of rum runners during the Prohibition era. The proximity to the Cohansey River allowed for boats to come in, load the liquor onto trucks, then distribute the liquor to wherever was necessary. The Cohansey River has been used to smuggle things for quite some time, as early as the American Revolution and the time of the Underground Railroad, as recently as transporting Marijuana in the 1970s. (7)

The investigation of a rum ring was ordered by Judge Stanger on April 26, 1930. The Judge ordered, “an immediate and sweeping investigation by the grand jury now in session into the charges of gigantic rum-running, threats, and intimidation against peaceable citizens, cowing them into silence by the rum ring, was eminently proper.” (1) The investigation looked into several charges including rum running, threats, and intimidation against citizens and others involved, such as workers, to keep them quiet. Edward Cronwell, a truck driver for those indicted in the conspiracy, was one of those who were threatened for “squealing” or otherwise ratting out the rum runners. Judge Stanger is quoted as saying, “Rum rings, whether composed of residents or non-residents, must have it made plain to them that they cannot use any point on our bay shore or navigable streams as headquarters from which to conduct their business.” (1) It is unclear just how long the river had been used for transporting illegal liquor, but it is clear that it is not until 1929 that there is repercussions for the act.

Seven men were arrested as being part of the alleged ring; John Callahan (who has several aliases), Cyril Eppinger (also several aliases), James Ernest, Benjamin Emerson, Edward Hymer Sr, Joseph Uhland, and Warren Hancock. They were all from Cumberland County, Bridgeton, South River, and Greenwich Township, among other towns in the area. John Callahan was considered to be the “brains” of the operation, while Cyril Eppinger was the Lieutenant. 

There is some confusion during the trial as to who was holding the liquor, whether that was Joseph Uhland or Warren Hancock, and who paid their workers on their farm to help with the unloading of the liquor. However, some witnesses from Greenwich Township claimed to know that the teams used were from Warren Hancock’s barn. Hancock also acted as a “decoy man”, leading officers on a chase for a truck that was empty once it was caught. Hancock was charged with “luring officers on a false scent” (4). It is unclear whether these trucks belonged to the rum-running ring Hancock was a part of or another truck that he hoped to pin the officers to.

John T. Callahan was the most prominent person on trial, as he was arrested five years before for being involved in a similar situation, breaking prohibition laws. The prosecution had brought about Callahan’s prior charges to further indicate that he would be involved in this crime syndicate for which he was accused. The article, which brings readers up to speed, reads,  “John Callahan had pleaded guilty to the charge of conspiracy in Cumberland County courts in October of 1925, paying a $500 fine.” (5) He opted to testify against one of the men he was working with, although there was no promise that he would be rewarded for his testimony. Despite this warning, he was given five years probation; had he broken the probation, he would have had to serve the prior sentence of one year in prison, in Middlesex County, NJ. 

During the trial, Callahan was accused of being in a sedan that was following a liquor truck going Northbound on Stathem Neck Road in Cumberland. No one could positively identify Callahan as being in a car involved in bootlegging with a truck carrying the illegal rum with intent to distribute. At first, Callahan had claimed he was not in Cumberland County at the time but instead was in New York. Mayor Thomas Dolan was called to the witness stand and testified that he had been with Callahan at the time, at the polls voting, as it had been election night. Despite the fact that this disproves Callahan’s statement that he was not in Cumberland County at the time, it still served to strengthen his alibi that he was not involved with the rum-running he was presently being accused of. 

He was also accused of trying to invite a man named Fred Renne, who was a witness called to testify, to join his operation. Callahan allegedly introduced himself under a false name that Renne knew was not his name, said as much and Callahan responded with something along the lines of, “I wanted to see how you would react to the fake name.” (4) This was the most convincing evidence of the entire trial that Callahan was indeed a rum runner and the ringleader of the men. 

As of September 13, 1930, Cyril Eppinger was found not guilty of the charges because there was no documentation that he was involved in the events of November 5, 1929. Following this newspaper, there is a gap in the documentation of such newspapers until October 10, 1930. The Rum-Runners trial had resulted in a disagreeing jury, which led to a new trial being requested, set for December 1, 1930. As of a newspaper from November 7, 1930, it becomes known that Callahan, Ernest, and Hancock pleaded “non-vult,” more commonly known as “no contest” to the charges that morning. John T. Callahan, James Ernest, and Warren Hancock were each charged a fine of $1,000 (which is around $18,000 today with inflation). 

It is unclear what happens to the men after the trial has concluded, which means that they either continued their crimes and did not get caught again, or this trial scared them into a more peaceful way of life. John T. Callahan appears a few more times in newspapers in North Jersey, in the Jersey City area, attempting to obtain a license to sell liquor. As seen in several newspapers from as early as 1956, “Take notice that John T. Callahan and Francis Callahan have applied to the Secretary of the Board of Alcoholic Beverage Control of Jersey City for Plenary Retail Consumption License #270 for premises situated at 273 ½ Washington St. Jersey City.” (6) There is no indication as to whether Callahan or his partner ever got the license to sell. 

Sources:

“Get at the Facts.” Bridgeton Evening Times. April 26, 1930. (1) https://www.genealogybank.com/doc/newspapers/image/v2%3A124ABFFE25150BEB%40GB3NEWS-18665AFC94636C2E%402426093-18627F6B9308A2B9%403-18627F6B9308A2B9%40?h=5&fname=&lname=&fullname=&rgfromDate=&rgtoDate=&formDate=&formDateFlex=exact&dateType=range&kwinc=rum%20running&kwexc=&city%5B0%5D=bridgeton&city%5B1%5D=vineland&sid=otsqrdtsyomdutnbwfjwbbvzwxoucyvv_wma-gateway012_1687787541538 (Accessed June 26, 2023). 

“Higherups in Rum Smuggling Must Answer in Court for Law Violations.” Bridgeton Evening Times. May 17, 1930. (2) https://www.genealogybank.com/doc/newspapers/image/v2%3A124ABFFE25150BEB%40GB3NEWS-18665B1FC2FE9FCE%402426114-18627F583088F777%400-18627F583088F777%40?h=4&fname=&lname=&fullname=&rgfromDate=&rgtoDate=&formDate=&formDateFlex=exact&dateType=range&kwinc=rum%20running&kwexc=&city%5B0%5D=bridgeton&city%5B1%5D=vineland&sid=otsqrdtsyomdutnbwfjwbbvzwxoucyvv_wma-gateway012_1687787541538 (Accessed June 26, 2023). 

“Rum Truck Driver Confused on the Witness Stand – Attorneys Begin Arguments to Jury.” Bridgeton Evening Times. September 10, 1930. (3) https://www.genealogybank.com/doc/newspapers/image/v2%3A124ABFFE25150BEB%40GB3NEWS-18665B1FC2FE9FCE%402426114-18627F583088F777%400-18627F583088F777%40?h=4&fname=&lname=&fullname=&rgfromDate=&rgtoDate=&formDate=&formDateFlex=exact&dateType=range&kwinc=rum%20running&kwexc=&city%5B0%5D=bridgeton&city%5B1%5D=vineland&sid=otsqrdtsyomdutnbwfjwbbvzwxoucyvv_wma-gateway012_1687787541538 (Accessed June 26, 2023).

“Others Ready to Fight in Defense.” Bridgeton Evening Times. September 10, 1930. (4) https://www.genealogybank.com/doc/newspapers/image/v2%3A124ABFFE25150BEB%40GB3NEWS-18665BADA109A039%402426230-18627F64425A4D19%403 (Accessed June 26, 2023). 

“Rum Truck Driver Confused on the Witness Stand – Attorneys Begin Arguments to Jury.” Bridgeton Evening Times. September 12, 1930. (5) https://www.genealogybank.com/doc/newspapers/image/v2%3A124ABFFE25150BEB%40GB3NEWS-18665B1FC2FE9FCE%402426114-18627F583088F777%400-18627F583088F777%40?h=4&fname=&lname=&fullname=&rgfromDate=&rgtoDate=&formDate=&formDateFlex=exact&dateType=range&kwinc=rum%20running&kwexc=&city%5B0%5D=bridgeton&city%5B1%5D=vineland&sid=otsqrdtsyomdutnbwfjwbbvzwxoucyvv_wma-gateway012_1687787541538 (Accessed June 26, 2023). 

“Notice.” The Jersey Journal. January 19, 1956. (6) https://www.genealogybank.com/doc/newspapers/image/v2%3A124ABFFE25150BEB%40GB3NEWS-18665B1FC2FE9FCE%402426114-18627F583088F777%400-18627F583088F777%40?h=4&fname=&lname=&fullname=&rgfromDate=&rgtoDate=&formDate=&formDateFlex=exact&dateType=range&kwinc=rum%20running&kwexc=&city%5B0%5D=bridgeton&city%5B1%5D=vineland&sid=otsqrdtsyomdutnbwfjwbbvzwxoucyvv_wma-gateway012_1687787541538 (Accessed June 26, 2023). 

Don E. Woods | For NJ.com. “Baywalk Empire: History of Prohibition in South Jersey.” NJ.com, August 17, 2015. (7) https://www.nj.com/cumberland/2015/08/baywalk_empire_the_secret_prohibition_history_of_s.html 

Obtaining a signed copy of a Deed of Gift is an important step to processing and making the donation fully part of the collections. Without that form, we are unable to do each of the necessary steps to document the donation and fully claim possession of it. In this blog, we will unpack what exactly a Deed of Gift is and how it affects the processing process.

Why do we ask you to sign a Deed of Gift?

A Deed of Gift is a contract stating that the ownership of the donation(s) is being transferred from the donor to the Society. This form is evidence that CCHS fully owns the item that will become part of the collection. Without the signed Deed of Gift, the ownership of items within our care can be contested. In addition to possession, the Deed of Gift also gives us all the contact information of the donor, which is necessary for provenance information. Maintaining complete records of our objects is crucial for museums to function properly. We need to know where our objects came from in order to study them and exhibit them accurately. And we need to be confident that the items in our collections cannot be claimed by a third party in the future. The Deed of Gift protects us and helps us to fulfill our mission.

Why is the Deed of Gift needed to process donations?

When processing a new acquisition(s), one of the steps is accessioning the item. In museums, accessioning an object means officially incorporating it into the museum’s collection of research, education, and/or exhibition materials. Accessioning requires establishing a detailed record of the object’s history. This step can only be done once the Deed of Gift is signed. This allows us to document the donor, the physical information of the donation, the date of donation, and where the item will be located. Lastly, we place an accession number on the item. This unique number reflects that the item is completely owned by CCHS and is part of the Society’s holdings. If a Deed of Gift is not signed, we have no evidence of ownership and the item cannot be accessioned.

Conclusion

The Deed of Gift is a vital part of the donation process and is critical for our records. Without the document, the ownership is not clearly defined which can cause issues down the road if CCHS possession is ever contested. The lack of a Deed of Gift means our collections are vulnerable. Signing Deeds of Gift ensures that CCHS obtains complete ownership over new acquisitions and that the items will remain in the care of CCHS.